SEEGER ENGINEERING offers a wide range of technical services in the field of energetic use of biomass.
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Energy production is the engine of our modern society. By energy generation in this context, we mean both electricity and heat generation from various energy sources. Whether through wind, solar, solid/renewable or fossil fuels, it powers machines, lights up our cities and enables progress. But now we are looking for sustainable alternatives to protect our environment and create a cleaner future. SEEGER ENGINEERING works in 3 of 5 areas of renewable energy: Biomass, Geothermal, Solar.
Heat distribution systems in industry play a crucial role in the efficient and reliable distribution of thermal energy on a large scale. Various types of heat distribution systems are used in industry, depending on the specific requirements of each plant. Here, the systems are differentiated according to the media flowing through the pipes.
Electrical engineering is at the heart of almost all technology. It includes the development, design and application of electrical and electronic systems. From power supply to communication and automation – electrical engineering enables our networked and electrified everyday life.
Fuel production essentially transforms renewable biomass into fuels that can replace the use of oil and gas in industrial plants and households for energy producers.
Energy consulting offers customized solutions for the efficient use of energy and waste heat flows. Experienced experts analyze energy consumption, identify potential savings and provide recommendations for efficient technologies and behavioral changes. This saves costs, protects the environment and increases efficiency for the company.
Piping engineering is an important part of the engineering discipline that deals with the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of pipelines. Piping is used in a variety of applications, including fluid and steam handling, wastewater disposal, potable water supply, and process industries. Innovative solutions ensure optimal performance and sustainability.
| 1 | Wind energy | → | Power generation |
| 2 | Solar power | ||
| Photovoltaics | → | Power generation | |
| Solar thermal | → | Heat production | |
| 3 | Biomass | → | Heat production Power generation Biogas Biofuels |
| 4 | Hydropower | → | Power generation |
| 5 | Geothermal energy | → | Power generation Heat production |
Photovoltaic systems, also called PV systems, convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. For energy conversion, the photoelectric effect of solar cells is used, which are connected to so-called solar modules. The generated electricity can be used directly or stored in accumulators (battery storage). In the case of grid-connected photovoltaic systems, the solar power can be fed into the public grid or used by the customer. The feed-in tariff into the public grid is regulated by the EEG (Renewable Energy Sources Act).
Solar thermal energy converts solar radiation into heat. Solar thermal is a well-developed, reliable technology to use solar energy to generate heat. Especially in Central Europe, it represents a quite excellent opportunity to use solar energy. The advantage of using solar thermal energy is the application of proven and efficient technology. In conjunction with a boiler with heat storage, it is ensured that heat is available throughout the day. In residential buildings, this technology is used to provide heat for domestic hot water and for backup heating.
Compared to fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum, the combustion of biomass has the advantage of constant availability (renewable) on the one hand, and carbon dioxide neutrality on the other. This is because in the industrialized countries, the burning of fossil fuels releases quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) in just a few decades that have been globally bound for millions of years. A plant, on the other hand, releases exactly the same amount of CO2 during combustion that it previously bound in its life. By the way, rotting emits the same amount of CO2. Carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the global greenhouse effect.
Renewable energies covered more than 16.2 % of the energy demand for heating and cooling in Germany in 2021. At 86 %, heat from solid biomass accounted for the largest share. Geothermal energy covers 9.8 %.
(Source: BMWI – Erneuerbare Energien in Zahlen)
Both types of plants use biomass, i.e. organic, plant-based renewable raw materials, to generate energy. Unlike biogas plants, however, this is not used to produce biogas. The fuel wood plays a supporting role, because usually the following fuels are used:
In biomass heating plants, the generated heat is usually transferred from the boiler in the form of warm or hot water. This technology is often used in local heating networks in combination with other renewable energies. In particular, together with heat pumps and / or solar thermal systems. Photovoltaic systems are also used to cover electricity requirements.
The steam power process is the most widespread among combined heat and power plants. The biomass which is burned during the use of a steam boiler produces flue gas. Afterwards this heats the water in special coils that serve as evaporator surfaces and superheaters. The resulting steam is used to drive a turbine, which in turn generates electricity. In most cases, the electricity is then used directly or fed into the power grid. The heat can be used as district, local or process heat. Gases which are produced during the combustion process are filtered and emitted afterwards.
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) plants operate similarly to biomass steam power plants, but use an organic working fluid rather than water. The reason for this is lower temperature gradients between heat source and heat sink. However, with the help of ORC plants, the potential of a low temperature level can be tapped. The organic working fluid is heated and evaporated with the aid of thermal oil (heat exchanger). During expansion, it drives a turbine and generates electrical energy. The resulting heat is used as district heating. In the field of geothermal energy, isobutane is used as a working fluid, for example.
Geothermal energy is divided into near-surface and far-surface (deep) geothermal energy.
Near-surface geothermal energy (up to a depth of approx. 400 m) requires a temperature increase by means of a heat pump due to the relatively low temperature. As an alternative to this technology, air or surface water are also used via heat generation by means of heat pumps. These belong to the so-called environmental heat.
(Source: UBA-Geothermie)
When using geothermal energy from deep geology, the brine water is either used directly to operate a heating network. Alternatively, if the temperature is high enough, the “brine” can be used to generate electricity. Here, the heat of the “brine” is transferred via heat exchangers to a working fluid, which evaporates. Subsequently, the ORC technology is used.
For further heat recovery from the flue gases during the combustion of solid biomasses, it is possible, in addition to the use of an economizer, to recover corresponding thermal power with the aid of flue gas condensation and to feed it to a heat sink. In conjunction with the water content of the fuel, which is transferred to the flue gas, and any combustion air humidification that may be used, it is possible to extract thermal energy from the flue gas even below its dew point. If low-temperature sinks below the dew point of the flue gas are present, additional energy can be generated by means of flue gas condensation.
In addition, the latent energy can be used, which depends on the water content of the fuel. This energy is released by means of a heat exchanger. The heat recovery thus reduces the flue gas loss of the boiler system and increases the system efficiency. Heat recovery can be achieved by indirect flue gas condensation using an absorption or compression heat pump as well as with direct flue gas condensation. The low-temperature heat obtained in this way can be raised to a higher temperature level by means of absorption heat pumps.
The capacity of the flue gas condenser depends on the load of the boiler, the water content of the fuel, degree of contamination of the boiler, humidity of the combustion air and the return temperature of the hot water. Since the flue gas is still saturated with 100% moisture after condensation, a dehumidification system may be required to reduce the relative humidity of the flue gas so that there are no longer any visible vapors at the stack outlet.
Refrigeration technology is essential for ensuring the function and safety of numerous processes, for example for maintaining cold chains in the food industry or in data centers. Furthermore, this is used for room air conditioning and electronic data processing (EDP) and is necessary for the provision of cooling in temperature-sensitive production processes. Refrigeration is provided by technologies that vary in design and size. Basically, however, the same principle is used for cold generation: Heat is dissipated at a low temperature level at one point. This is where the cooling effect occurs, usually by evaporation of a coolant. Elsewhere, the dissipated heat is released back into the environment at a higher temperature level. To maintain the process, work must be expended. Depending on the type of refrigeration system, this energy is provided from electrical energy or thermally from e.g. waste heat. The efficiency of a chiller is evaluated by a coefficient of performance. This indicates the ratio of the energy benefit to the cost of the chiller and is defined differently depending on the chiller in question.
Compression chillers are electrically driven chillers. This type of chiller has the largest market share and is most often used in refrigeration supply systems. A refrigerant undergoes an aggregate state change from liquid to gaseous and vice versa one after the other. During evaporation, the refrigerant absorbs heat of vaporization from the environment, thus creating the cooling effect.
An essential difference to the compression chiller is that absorption chillers are driven by heat. The refrigerant is not compressed by an electrically driven compressor, but thermally by a sorption process. Absorption chillers use two working fluids as a working fluid pair for this purpose. The refrigeration process consists of two interconnected circuits (refrigerant and solvent circuit.
The electrode boiler is used to produce hot water, hot water or steam by means of electrical energy acting directly on injected water. The flow of electric current through the water heats it directly. Resistance heating elements, on the other hand, are not used in the electrode boiler.
The operating principle of a power-to-heat plant in the form of an electrode boiler is based on electrolysis Water with an increased conductivity is used as an ohmic resistance. When an AC voltage is applied, the water is superheated in direct contact with electrodes. Due to the increased conductivity, the heated water is connected to a secondary circuit (district heating network), for example, via a heat exchanger. In the circulation system, the now cold water is again fed to the boiler. These hot water generators have an efficiency of 99.9 percent.
With the help of power-to-heat plants, previously unused electricity from renewable sources can be used to generate green district heating. In this way, the share of fossil energy sources in district heating generation can also decrease in the long term.
Gas and oil boilers, in some cases also multi-fuel boilers, are mainly used in commercial and industrial areas for energy generation (steam/hot water). Today, pure fossil-fired heating plants are only used for reserve and peak load coverage. The main fuels used in heating plants are natural gas and fuel oil. Oil and gas heating systems are also among the classic heating systems that work with fossil fuels. Here, these fuels are still used in stock, but are increasingly being replaced by renewables.
The operation of a CHP is based on the use of an internal combustion engine coupled with a synchronous generator and a heat exchanger. The waste heat generated during combustion is recovered and used for heating and hot water. The generated electricity can be used to meet electricity energy needs.
While conventional power generators can only use about 40 percent of the energy stored in the fuel, CHP units achieve efficiencies of up to 90 percent. Combined power and heat generation therefore allows them to utilize almost all the energy stored in the fuel.
A gas turbine is a turbine driven by a hot gas. As a rule, these are combustiongases produced from a mixture of biogas or natural gas and air. The gas turbine serves as the heat source in a combined cycle power plant. High-pressure steam is generated in a downstream waste heat boiler in the flue gas stream, which is designed as a steam boiler, and this steam is then used to generate electricity in a steam turbine. Electrical efficiencies of up to 60 % can be achieved with this cycle.
Waste incineration – also called refuse incineration, thermal waste treatment or recycling – is the burning of the atmospherically combustible fractions of waste in order to dispose of or recycle it using the energy it contains. The residual materials left behind can be used for further recycling or sent to landfill.
The heat generated during the incineration of the waste is used in the downstream process to produce steam in the boiler plant. This steam can be expanded in a steam turbogenerator to produce electrical energy. It can also be used for heating district heating networks or as process heat in production processes.
Essentially, waste incineration plants consist of a fuel storage facility, an incineration plant and a multi-stage flue gas cleaning system, as well as various ancillary facilities. Ecological aspects play a central role in all parts of the plant. The comparatively strict emission limits can be safely undercut by suitable measures, which is why the equipment and process design of the plant must be adapted to the application. The BREF documents (Best Available Technique Reference Documents) are to be implemented in the design of waste incineration plants.
Municipal waste is waste from private households and comparable establishments as well as waste similar to household waste from commerce and industry. Furthermore, municipal waste also includes bulky waste, market waste, street sweepings, biowaste, and separately collected recyclables such as glass and paper. It also includes fecal matter and sewage sludge.
f possible, this waste should be recycled, as is common practice in the case of glass, paper and biological waste. The major residual portion is generally sent for thermal recycling and used as fuel in waste incineration plants.
Substitute fuels (SRF) or secondary fuels (SRF) are fuels that are produced from waste. The waste used to produce refuse-derived fuel comes from households, industry or commerce. The fuel requirements in terms of calorific value and pollutant content determine the preparation depth and thus have a significant influence on fuel quality. In addition to the emission-relevant parameters and the calorific value, important fuel parameters are the chlorine content and the ash content.
Often the high calorific fractions are extracted from municipal, industrial and commercial wastes. As a rule, this is done first by pre-sorting and coarse crushing. This waste is then sorted using various processes and ferrous and non-ferrous metals are removed.
RDF can be thermally utilized in so-called co-incineration together with conventional fuels, in waste incineration plants or as the sole fuel in RDF power plants.
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems function similarly to biomass steam power plants but do not use water; instead, they employ an organic working fluid. This is due to lower temperature differentials between the heat source and heat sink. However, ORC systems enable the use of low-temperature resources. The organic working fluid is heated and vaporized using thermal oil (heat transfer fluid). During expansion, it drives a turbine and generates electrical energy. The resulting heat is used as district heating. In the field of geothermal energy, isobutane is used as a working fluid, for example.
Flue gas condensation systems are used for heat recovery from exhaust gases, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the plant. The residual heat generated by thermal combustion processes and contained in the flue gases is largely extracted through condensation. Depending on how the systems are designed and configured for heat recovery, it is possible to cool the flue gases below their dew point. This type of energy recovery can be used to improve efficiency, for example, in heating networks, process heat applications, and/or drying processes.
By using electric heat pumps, it is possible to use environmental heat sources at a low thermal level and raise them to an energetically higher temperature level with the help of electricity. In this way, heat can be generated in a ratio of approx. 4:1 (environmental energy: electrical energy). Generally, different environmental heat sources (soil, water, air) or waste heat sources (commercial, wastewater) are available. Heat sources that have consistent temperatures throughout the year at the highest possible temperature level are advantageous. The heat output of a heat pump is increased by the electrical energy used in addition to the usable environmental heat, as this is converted into heat.
The treatment of flue gas to reduce pollutants is an essential component in relation to the construction, approval and operation of combustion plants. The aim is, in any case, to reduce the environmental impact by implementing suitable equipment and process engineering measures.
Depending on the fuels used and the combustion heat output, limit values are prescribed by law. Dust, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chlorides, hydrogen fluorides, sulfur oxides, and heavy metal compounds are among the pollutants that often need to be reduced in the flue gas stream to appropriately mitigate the resulting emissions.
Dedusting systems are used to separate finely dispersed solid contaminants from the flue gas. The most commonly used devices for this purpose include filtering separators, electrostatic precipitators, and inertial separators. The choice of different separators depends on the composition of the dust, its concentration, the space available, and the design of the system.
In many cases, centrifugal separators are employed to remove the coarse fractions of the dust exiting the boiler, as well as glowing ash particles from the flue gas. This inertial separator can be followed by either a fabric filter (also known as a bag filter) or an electrostatic precipitator to further reduce the dust load in the flue gas and comply with emission limits. The use of an electrostatic precipitator does not necessarily require a preceding inertial separator.
A suitable concept is to develop an individualized design for each system, tailored to its specific conditions.
To reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx), the following methods are generally available:
These techniques involve the injection of ammonia, urea, or other chemicals that react with NOx in the flue gas and convert them into molecular nitrogen. In industrial applications, aqueous solutions of ammonia or urea are typically used as reducing agents, although gaseous ammonia is occasionally employed in rare cases.
Flue gas cleaning processes involve a combination of chemisorption of acidic pollutants, i.e., the chemical binding of free acids such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and sulfur dioxide, to additives known as sorbents, followed by their subsequent removal. These processes can be divided into three classes:
Wet processes are traditionally used primarily in large power plants because they can reliably meet emission limits while achieving near-stoichiometric conversion of the additive.
Due to the significant equipment and financial requirements of wet processes, wastewater-free, i.e., quasi-dry and dry, processes have been developed for smaller flue gas streams. Dry processes are particularly characterized by their relatively simple design and compact construction.
The specific design and engineering of flue gas cleaning systems need to be tailored to each individual case. This is significantly influenced by factors such as the size of the plant, the pollutant load of the fuel, and the required emission limits to be met.
| 1 | Wind energy | → | Power generation |
| 2 | Solar power | ||
| Photovoltaics | → | Power generation | |
| Solar thermal | → | Heat production | |
| 3 | Biomass | → | Heat production Power generation Biogas Biofuels |
| 4 | Hydropower | → | Power generation |
| 5 | Geothermal energy | → | Power generation Heat production |
Photovoltaic systems, also called PV systems, convert sunlight directly into electrical energy. For energy conversion, the photoelectric effect of solar cells is used, which are connected to so-called solar modules. The generated electricity can be used directly or stored in accumulators (battery storage). In the case of grid-connected photovoltaic systems, the solar power can be fed into the public grid or used by the customer. The feed-in tariff into the public grid is regulated by the EEG (Renewable Energy Sources Act).
Solar thermal energy converts solar radiation into heat. Solar thermal is a well-developed, reliable technology to use solar energy to generate heat. Especially in Central Europe, it represents a quite excellent opportunity to use solar energy. The advantage of using solar thermal energy is the application of proven and efficient technology. In conjunction with a boiler with heat storage, it is ensured that heat is available throughout the day. In residential buildings, this technology is used to provide heat for domestic hot water and for backup heating.
Compared to fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum, the combustion of biomass has the advantage of constant availability (renewable) on the one hand, and carbon dioxide neutrality on the other. This is because in the industrialized countries, the burning of fossil fuels releases quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) in just a few decades that have been globally bound for millions of years. A plant, on the other hand, releases exactly the same amount of CO2 during combustion that it previously bound in its life. By the way, rotting emits the same amount of CO2. Carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the global greenhouse effect.
Renewable energies covered more than 16.2 % of the energy demand for heating and cooling in Germany in 2021. At 86 %, heat from solid biomass accounted for the largest share. Geothermal energy covers 9.8 %.
(Source: BMWI – Erneuerbare Energien in Zahlen)
Both types of plants use biomass, i.e. organic, plant-based renewable raw materials, to generate energy. Unlike biogas plants, however, this is not used to produce biogas. The fuel wood plays a supporting role, because usually the following fuels are used:
In biomass heating plants, the generated heat is usually transferred from the boiler in the form of warm or hot water. This technology is often used in local heating networks in combination with other renewable energies. In particular, together with heat pumps and / or solar thermal systems. Photovoltaic systems are also used to cover electricity requirements.
The steam power process is the most widespread among combined heat and power plants. The biomass which is burned during the use of a steam boiler produces flue gas. Afterwards this heats the water in special coils that serve as evaporator surfaces and superheaters. The resulting steam is used to drive a turbine, which in turn generates electricity. In most cases, the electricity is then used directly or fed into the power grid. The heat can be used as district, local or process heat. Gases which are produced during the combustion process are filtered and emitted afterwards.
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) plants operate similarly to biomass steam power plants, but use an organic working fluid rather than water. The reason for this is lower temperature gradients between heat source and heat sink. However, with the help of ORC plants, the potential of a low temperature level can be tapped. The organic working fluid is heated and evaporated with the aid of thermal oil (heat exchanger). During expansion, it drives a turbine and generates electrical energy. The resulting heat is used as district heating. In the field of geothermal energy, isobutane is used as a working fluid, for example.
Geothermal energy is divided into near-surface and far-surface (deep) geothermal energy.
Near-surface geothermal energy (up to a depth of approx. 400 m) requires a temperature increase by means of a heat pump due to the relatively low temperature. As an alternative to this technology, air or surface water are also used via heat generation by means of heat pumps. These belong to the so-called environmental heat.
(Source: UBA-Geothermie)
When using geothermal energy from deep geology, the brine water is either used directly to operate a heating network. Alternatively, if the temperature is high enough, the “brine” can be used to generate electricity. Here, the heat of the “brine” is transferred via heat exchangers to a working fluid, which evaporates. Subsequently, the ORC technology is used.
For further heat recovery from the flue gases during the combustion of solid biomasses, it is possible, in addition to the use of an economizer, to recover corresponding thermal power with the aid of flue gas condensation and to feed it to a heat sink. In conjunction with the water content of the fuel, which is transferred to the flue gas, and any combustion air humidification that may be used, it is possible to extract thermal energy from the flue gas even below its dew point. If low-temperature sinks below the dew point of the flue gas are present, additional energy can be generated by means of flue gas condensation.
In addition, the latent energy can be used, which depends on the water content of the fuel. This energy is released by means of a heat exchanger. The heat recovery thus reduces the flue gas loss of the boiler system and increases the system efficiency. Heat recovery can be achieved by indirect flue gas condensation using an absorption or compression heat pump as well as with direct flue gas condensation. The low-temperature heat obtained in this way can be raised to a higher temperature level by means of absorption heat pumps.
The capacity of the flue gas condenser depends on the load of the boiler, the water content of the fuel, degree of contamination of the boiler, humidity of the combustion air and the return temperature of the hot water. Since the flue gas is still saturated with 100% moisture after condensation, a dehumidification system may be required to reduce the relative humidity of the flue gas so that there are no longer any visible vapors at the stack outlet.
Refrigeration technology is essential for ensuring the function and safety of numerous processes, for example for maintaining cold chains in the food industry or in data centers. Furthermore, this is used for room air conditioning and electronic data processing (EDP) and is necessary for the provision of cooling in temperature-sensitive production processes. Refrigeration is provided by technologies that vary in design and size. Basically, however, the same principle is used for cold generation: Heat is dissipated at a low temperature level at one point. This is where the cooling effect occurs, usually by evaporation of a coolant. Elsewhere, the dissipated heat is released back into the environment at a higher temperature level. To maintain the process, work must be expended. Depending on the type of refrigeration system, this energy is provided from electrical energy or thermally from e.g. waste heat. The efficiency of a chiller is evaluated by a coefficient of performance. This indicates the ratio of the energy benefit to the cost of the chiller and is defined differently depending on the chiller in question.
Compression chillers are electrically driven chillers. This type of chiller has the largest market share and is most often used in refrigeration supply systems. A refrigerant undergoes an aggregate state change from liquid to gaseous and vice versa one after the other. During evaporation, the refrigerant absorbs heat of vaporization from the environment, thus creating the cooling effect.
An essential difference to the compression chiller is that absorption chillers are driven by heat. The refrigerant is not compressed by an electrically driven compressor, but thermally by a sorption process. Absorption chillers use two working fluids as a working fluid pair for this purpose. The refrigeration process consists of two interconnected circuits (refrigerant and solvent circuit.
The electrode boiler is used to produce hot water, hot water or steam by means of electrical energy acting directly on injected water. The flow of electric current through the water heats it directly. Resistance heating elements, on the other hand, are not used in the electrode boiler.
The operating principle of a power-to-heat plant in the form of an electrode boiler is based on electrolysis Water with an increased conductivity is used as an ohmic resistance. When an AC voltage is applied, the water is superheated in direct contact with electrodes. Due to the increased conductivity, the heated water is connected to a secondary circuit (district heating network), for example, via a heat exchanger. In the circulation system, the now cold water is again fed to the boiler. These hot water generators have an efficiency of 99.9 percent.
With the help of power-to-heat plants, previously unused electricity from renewable sources can be used to generate green district heating. In this way, the share of fossil energy sources in district heating generation can also decrease in the long term.
Gas and oil boilers, in some cases also multi-fuel boilers, are mainly used in commercial and industrial areas for energy generation (steam/hot water). Today, pure fossil-fired heating plants are only used for reserve and peak load coverage. The main fuels used in heating plants are natural gas and fuel oil. Oil and gas heating systems are also among the classic heating systems that work with fossil fuels. Here, these fuels are still used in stock, but are increasingly being replaced by renewables.
The operation of a CHP is based on the use of an internal combustion engine coupled with a synchronous generator and a heat exchanger. The waste heat generated during combustion is recovered and used for heating and hot water. The generated electricity can be used to meet electricity energy needs.
While conventional power generators can only use about 40 percent of the energy stored in the fuel, CHP units achieve efficiencies of up to 90 percent. Combined power and heat generation therefore allows them to utilize almost all the energy stored in the fuel.
A gas turbine is a turbine driven by a hot gas. As a rule, these are combustiongases produced from a mixture of biogas or natural gas and air. The gas turbine serves as the heat source in a combined cycle power plant. High-pressure steam is generated in a downstream waste heat boiler in the flue gas stream, which is designed as a steam boiler, and this steam is then used to generate electricity in a steam turbine. Electrical efficiencies of up to 60 % can be achieved with this cycle.
Waste incineration – also called refuse incineration, thermal waste treatment or recycling – is the burning of the atmospherically combustible fractions of waste in order to dispose of or recycle it using the energy it contains. The residual materials left behind can be used for further recycling or sent to landfill.
The heat generated during the incineration of the waste is used in the downstream process to produce steam in the boiler plant. This steam can be expanded in a steam turbogenerator to produce electrical energy. It can also be used for heating district heating networks or as process heat in production processes.
Essentially, waste incineration plants consist of a fuel storage facility, an incineration plant and a multi-stage flue gas cleaning system, as well as various ancillary facilities. Ecological aspects play a central role in all parts of the plant. The comparatively strict emission limits can be safely undercut by suitable measures, which is why the equipment and process design of the plant must be adapted to the application. The BREF documents (Best Available Technique Reference Documents) are to be implemented in the design of waste incineration plants.
Municipal waste is waste from private households and comparable establishments as well as waste similar to household waste from commerce and industry. Furthermore, municipal waste also includes bulky waste, market waste, street sweepings, biowaste, and separately collected recyclables such as glass and paper. It also includes fecal matter and sewage sludge.
f possible, this waste should be recycled, as is common practice in the case of glass, paper and biological waste. The major residual portion is generally sent for thermal recycling and used as fuel in waste incineration plants.
Substitute fuels (SRF) or secondary fuels (SRF) are fuels that are produced from waste. The waste used to produce refuse-derived fuel comes from households, industry or commerce. The fuel requirements in terms of calorific value and pollutant content determine the preparation depth and thus have a significant influence on fuel quality. In addition to the emission-relevant parameters and the calorific value, important fuel parameters are the chlorine content and the ash content.
Often the high calorific fractions are extracted from municipal, industrial and commercial wastes. As a rule, this is done first by pre-sorting and coarse crushing. This waste is then sorted using various processes and ferrous and non-ferrous metals are removed.
RDF can be thermally utilized in so-called co-incineration together with conventional fuels, in waste incineration plants or as the sole fuel in RDF power plants.
Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) systems function similarly to biomass steam power plants but do not use water; instead, they employ an organic working fluid. This is due to lower temperature differentials between the heat source and heat sink. However, ORC systems enable the use of low-temperature resources. The organic working fluid is heated and vaporized using thermal oil (heat transfer fluid). During expansion, it drives a turbine and generates electrical energy. The resulting heat is used as district heating. In the field of geothermal energy, isobutane is used as a working fluid, for example.
Flue gas condensation systems are used for heat recovery from exhaust gases, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the plant. The residual heat generated by thermal combustion processes and contained in the flue gases is largely extracted through condensation. Depending on how the systems are designed and configured for heat recovery, it is possible to cool the flue gases below their dew point. This type of energy recovery can be used to improve efficiency, for example, in heating networks, process heat applications, and/or drying processes.
By using electric heat pumps, it is possible to use environmental heat sources at a low thermal level and raise them to an energetically higher temperature level with the help of electricity. In this way, heat can be generated in a ratio of approx. 4:1 (environmental energy: electrical energy). Generally, different environmental heat sources (soil, water, air) or waste heat sources (commercial, wastewater) are available. Heat sources that have consistent temperatures throughout the year at the highest possible temperature level are advantageous. The heat output of a heat pump is increased by the electrical energy used in addition to the usable environmental heat, as this is converted into heat.
The treatment of flue gas to reduce pollutants is an essential component in relation to the construction, approval and operation of combustion plants. The aim is, in any case, to reduce the environmental impact by implementing suitable equipment and process engineering measures.
Depending on the fuels used and the combustion heat output, limit values are prescribed by law. Dust, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen chlorides, hydrogen fluorides, sulfur oxides, and heavy metal compounds are among the pollutants that often need to be reduced in the flue gas stream to appropriately mitigate the resulting emissions.
Dedusting systems are used to separate finely dispersed solid contaminants from the flue gas. The most commonly used devices for this purpose include filtering separators, electrostatic precipitators, and inertial separators. The choice of different separators depends on the composition of the dust, its concentration, the space available, and the design of the system.
In many cases, centrifugal separators are employed to remove the coarse fractions of the dust exiting the boiler, as well as glowing ash particles from the flue gas. This inertial separator can be followed by either a fabric filter (also known as a bag filter) or an electrostatic precipitator to further reduce the dust load in the flue gas and comply with emission limits. The use of an electrostatic precipitator does not necessarily require a preceding inertial separator.
A suitable concept is to develop an individualized design for each system, tailored to its specific conditions.
To reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx), the following methods are generally available:
These techniques involve the injection of ammonia, urea, or other chemicals that react with NOx in the flue gas and convert them into molecular nitrogen. In industrial applications, aqueous solutions of ammonia or urea are typically used as reducing agents, although gaseous ammonia is occasionally employed in rare cases.
Flue gas cleaning processes involve a combination of chemisorption of acidic pollutants, i.e., the chemical binding of free acids such as hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, and sulfur dioxide, to additives known as sorbents, followed by their subsequent removal. These processes can be divided into three classes:
Wet processes are traditionally used primarily in large power plants because they can reliably meet emission limits while achieving near-stoichiometric conversion of the additive.
Due to the significant equipment and financial requirements of wet processes, wastewater-free, i.e., quasi-dry and dry, processes have been developed for smaller flue gas streams. Dry processes are particularly characterized by their relatively simple design and compact construction.
The specific design and engineering of flue gas cleaning systems need to be tailored to each individual case. This is significantly influenced by factors such as the size of the plant, the pollutant load of the fuel, and the required emission limits to be met.
| Network type | Medium | Overpressure [bar] | Temperature [oC] |
| Steam networks | Steam | 0,1 – 100 | Saturated steam – 520 |
| Hot water high pressure | Water | 6 – 20 | 120 – 180 |
| Low hot water pressure | Water | 4 – 6 | 70 – 120 |
| Warm water | Water | 4 – 10 | < 100 |
| Cold nets | Water | 4 – 10 | < 30 |
| Cooling network | Water | 2 – 5 | < 12 |
| Thermal oil | Oil | 2 – 25 | 180 – 250 |
The hot water and warm water networks operate with hot water within a temperature range of 110 – 190 °C, and for warm water, up to a maximum temperature of 110 °C as the heat carrier. The temperature of 110 °C is based on German regulations and refers to the setting of the safety temperature limiter (STB). Warm water boilers up to 100°C fall under building regulations, while for hot water boilers above 110°C, commercial regulations – specifically the Operating Safety Ordinance – are applicable. The water heated in the boilers is conveyed to the radiators through pipelines, cools down by releasing heat, and returns to the boilers where the cycle begins anew.
Among all central heating systems in Germany, the warm water heating system has found the widest application, almost exclusively as a closed-circuit pumped warm water heating system in a two-pipe configuration. Gravity-fed or open heating systems, as well as single-pipe systems, are practically only found in existing installations.
Hot water district heating using steam with temperatures >120 °C presents an alternative for heat supply. However, the advantages of hot water supply compared to steam supply are considerable.
Warm water is drinkable water that can be heated up to a maximum temperature of around 90 °C. It is extensively used in modern industry. Households require relatively small amounts for food and beverage preparation, washing, cleaning, and bathing. Restaurants, hotels, commercial kitchens, and hospitals consume significantly larger quantities for the same purposes. It is further demanded on a larger scale by commercial and industrial operations such as laundries, dyeing plants, slaughterhouses, bathing facilities, foundries, and mining companies.
In the future, networks with low temperature levels ranging from 8…30 °C will be increasingly used. These networks allow for both heating (via heat pumps) and cooling. Due to the low temperatures, they result in significantly lower heat losses during transport compared to conventional networks. However, due to the usually smaller temperature difference, relatively large pipe cross-sections are often required. The future significance of such networks arises particularly in the context of sector coupling (see also “thermal storage”).
In common usage, we hear terms such as wet steam, moist steam, saturated steam, or superheated steam. The following will explain the three main types of steam that are frequently used.
When water is heated, it turns into water vapor, which we call saturated steam. There is a relationship between pressure and temperature. If we know the temperature, we can determine the pressure, and if we know the pressure, we can determine the temperature. There is a relationship between pressure and temperature. If we know the temperature, we can determine the pressure, and if we know the pressure, we can determine the temperature. This relationship is shown in the Mollier diagram. Saturated steam still contains water droplets. Therefore, a certain percentage of moisture is still present. The percentage of moisture is a distinguishing factor from another type of steam called superheated steam.
When saturated steam is further heated, its moisture content decreases. The remaining water droplets become smaller and transition into the vapor phase. An overheating is considered to occur at temperatures 10-20°C above the saturated steam temperature. Steam with a temperature 5°C to 10°C above the saturated steam temperature is common in technical applications. Due to poorer heat transfer, superheated steam is a better medium for heat transport. Due to better heat transfer, saturated steam is a better medium for heat transfer.
This steam is generated from condensate after pressure reductions. This steam quantity is often referred to as flash steam.
When saturated steam or superheated steam is cooled, condensate is formed. Condensate is fundamentally liquid and possesses the characteristics of hot water. Depending on the pressure, condensate can also be used for heating through re-evaporation. Steam is generated automatically even with small pressure differentials. Condensate is continuously generated in the steam cycle and is collected in tanks. Condensate pumps are used to transport condensate.
Heat transfer systems are used in many manufacturing industries. Due to their working medium (commonly known as “heat transfer medium,” generally referred to as “thermal oil” or “thermo oil”), these systems are often called “thermal oil systems” or “thermal oil heating systems.”
In contrast to hot water or steam systems, heat transfer systems are characterized by providing process heat in a wide temperature range at nearly atmospheric pressure. For standard applications, an design according to PN 16 is sufficient for a maximum supply temperature of 300 °C, while PN 25 is used for temperatures up to 350 °C, and PN 40 for temperatures up to 400 °C.
It should be emphasized that with a suitable “thermo oil,” a temperature of 350 °C can be achieved at nearly atmospheric pressure. Only the pressure caused by the circulation pump needs to be considered.
The requirements for thermal oils vary widely and depend primarily on the specific application. Important factors include good thermal stability, low viscosity, a high flash point, and good heat transfer properties. Additionally, the thermal oil should not be corrosive or toxic, should have low fire hazard characteristics, and be easy to dispose of.
Heat storage is particularly useful at locations with strong fluctuations in demand in order to reduce the generation capacity to be installed (e.g. of boiler plants) by covering peaks via heat storage. Storing heat has become increasingly important because, against the background of the expansion of renewable energies in the power grid, the differences between generation capacity and power demand fluctuate more than before. Against the background of the sector coupling of heat and electricity, CHP plants can be made more flexible, for example, and local heating networks can be optimized with regard to the operating mode of the generating units.
A steam storage system is used to store steam so that it can be quickly provided when needed and not wasted during excess production. This allows for covering a highly fluctuating steam demand with a biomass boiler system, compensating for its relatively slow rate of load change with a steam storage.
In principle, steam can be stored either in a vapor or liquid state. However, storing steam in the gas phase is very rarely used due to the large storage volume required. Typically, steam or steam energy is transferred to water and stored in that form.
During normal operation, a steam generator produces a preferably constant amount of steam. If the steam demand suddenly decreases, the excess steam is directed into a partially filled container with water. This causes the temperature of the water and the pressure inside the closed container to rise.
When the steam demand exceeds the production capacity of the steam generator, the steam storage is discharged. The pressure in the container is reduced by opening the outlet control valve, allowing the hot water in the container to vaporize and be released to the steam network. Due to the pressure fluctuations during the charging and discharging of the storage, it is also referred to as a pressure drop steam storage.
| Network type | Medium | Overpressure [bar] | Temperature [oC] |
| Steam networks | Steam | 0,1 – 100 | Saturated steam – 520 |
| Hot water high pressure | Water | 6 – 20 | 120 – 180 |
| Low hot water pressure | Water | 4 – 6 | 70 – 120 |
| Warm water | Water | 4 – 10 | < 100 |
| Cold nets | Water | 4 – 10 | < 30 |
| Cooling network | Water | 2 – 5 | < 12 |
| Thermal oil | Oil | 2 – 25 | 180 – 250 |
The hot water and warm water networks operate with hot water within a temperature range of 110 – 190 °C, and for warm water, up to a maximum temperature of 110 °C as the heat carrier. The temperature of 110 °C is based on German regulations and refers to the setting of the safety temperature limiter (STB). Warm water boilers up to 100°C fall under building regulations, while for hot water boilers above 110°C, commercial regulations – specifically the Operating Safety Ordinance – are applicable. The water heated in the boilers is conveyed to the radiators through pipelines, cools down by releasing heat, and returns to the boilers where the cycle begins anew.
Among all central heating systems in Germany, the warm water heating system has found the widest application, almost exclusively as a closed-circuit pumped warm water heating system in a two-pipe configuration. Gravity-fed or open heating systems, as well as single-pipe systems, are practically only found in existing installations.
Hot water district heating using steam with temperatures >120 °C presents an alternative for heat supply. However, the advantages of hot water supply compared to steam supply are considerable.
Warm water is drinkable water that can be heated up to a maximum temperature of around 90 °C. It is extensively used in modern industry. Households require relatively small amounts for food and beverage preparation, washing, cleaning, and bathing. Restaurants, hotels, commercial kitchens, and hospitals consume significantly larger quantities for the same purposes. It is further demanded on a larger scale by commercial and industrial operations such as laundries, dyeing plants, slaughterhouses, bathing facilities, foundries, and mining companies.
In the future, networks with low temperature levels ranging from 8…30 °C will be increasingly used. These networks allow for both heating (via heat pumps) and cooling. Due to the low temperatures, they result in significantly lower heat losses during transport compared to conventional networks. However, due to the usually smaller temperature difference, relatively large pipe cross-sections are often required. The future significance of such networks arises particularly in the context of sector coupling (see also “thermal storage”).
In common usage, we hear terms such as wet steam, moist steam, saturated steam, or superheated steam. The following will explain the three main types of steam that are frequently used.
When water is heated, it turns into water vapor, which we call saturated steam. There is a relationship between pressure and temperature. If we know the temperature, we can determine the pressure, and if we know the pressure, we can determine the temperature. There is a relationship between pressure and temperature. If we know the temperature, we can determine the pressure, and if we know the pressure, we can determine the temperature. This relationship is shown in the Mollier diagram. Saturated steam still contains water droplets. Therefore, a certain percentage of moisture is still present. The percentage of moisture is a distinguishing factor from another type of steam called superheated steam.
When saturated steam is further heated, its moisture content decreases. The remaining water droplets become smaller and transition into the vapor phase. An overheating is considered to occur at temperatures 10-20°C above the saturated steam temperature. Steam with a temperature 5°C to 10°C above the saturated steam temperature is common in technical applications. Due to poorer heat transfer, superheated steam is a better medium for heat transport. Due to better heat transfer, saturated steam is a better medium for heat transfer.
This steam is generated from condensate after pressure reductions. This steam quantity is often referred to as flash steam.
When saturated steam or superheated steam is cooled, condensate is formed. Condensate is fundamentally liquid and possesses the characteristics of hot water. Depending on the pressure, condensate can also be used for heating through re-evaporation. Steam is generated automatically even with small pressure differentials. Condensate is continuously generated in the steam cycle and is collected in tanks. Condensate pumps are used to transport condensate.
Heat transfer systems are used in many manufacturing industries. Due to their working medium (commonly known as “heat transfer medium,” generally referred to as “thermal oil” or “thermo oil”), these systems are often called “thermal oil systems” or “thermal oil heating systems.”
In contrast to hot water or steam systems, heat transfer systems are characterized by providing process heat in a wide temperature range at nearly atmospheric pressure. For standard applications, an design according to PN 16 is sufficient for a maximum supply temperature of 300 °C, while PN 25 is used for temperatures up to 350 °C, and PN 40 for temperatures up to 400 °C.
It should be emphasized that with a suitable “thermo oil,” a temperature of 350 °C can be achieved at nearly atmospheric pressure. Only the pressure caused by the circulation pump needs to be considered.
The requirements for thermal oils vary widely and depend primarily on the specific application. Important factors include good thermal stability, low viscosity, a high flash point, and good heat transfer properties. Additionally, the thermal oil should not be corrosive or toxic, should have low fire hazard characteristics, and be easy to dispose of.
Heat storage is particularly useful at locations with strong fluctuations in demand in order to reduce the generation capacity to be installed (e.g. of boiler plants) by covering peaks via heat storage. Storing heat has become increasingly important because, against the background of the expansion of renewable energies in the power grid, the differences between generation capacity and power demand fluctuate more than before. Against the background of the sector coupling of heat and electricity, CHP plants can be made more flexible, for example, and local heating networks can be optimized with regard to the operating mode of the generating units.
A steam storage system is used to store steam so that it can be quickly provided when needed and not wasted during excess production. This allows for covering a highly fluctuating steam demand with a biomass boiler system, compensating for its relatively slow rate of load change with a steam storage.
In principle, steam can be stored either in a vapor or liquid state. However, storing steam in the gas phase is very rarely used due to the large storage volume required. Typically, steam or steam energy is transferred to water and stored in that form.
During normal operation, a steam generator produces a preferably constant amount of steam. If the steam demand suddenly decreases, the excess steam is directed into a partially filled container with water. This causes the temperature of the water and the pressure inside the closed container to rise.
When the steam demand exceeds the production capacity of the steam generator, the steam storage is discharged. The pressure in the container is reduced by opening the outlet control valve, allowing the hot water in the container to vaporize and be released to the steam network. Due to the pressure fluctuations during the charging and discharging of the storage, it is also referred to as a pressure drop steam storage.
Transformers play a crucial role in the transmission of electrical energy at different voltage levels. Various factors need to be considered when planning transformers, such as the required power range, voltage level, and environment.
An important distinction in transformer planning relates to the type of insulation material used. There are two common variants: oil transformers and cast resin transformers.
Oil transformers have been used in the field of power engineering for decades. They utilize special oils as insulation material, which also serve as cooling agents. Factors such as the required oil volume, oil quality, and necessary safety measures must be taken into account when planning oil transformers. The installation of oil transformers requires specific measures to protect the environment and human health, as oil leakage can have negative consequences.
A modern alternative to oil transformers is cast resin transformers. They use special cast resins as insulation material, which exhibit similar insulation properties as oil transformers but are more environmentally friendly. Cast resin transformers have higher thermal stability and can operate at higher temperatures, thereby extending their lifespan. The installation of cast resin transformers is simpler and requires less space compared to oil transformers.
When planning transformers, the requirements for voltage levels must also be considered. There are different voltage levels, such as high-voltage transformers, medium-voltage transformers, and low-voltage transformers.
In summary, when planning transformers, various factors need to be taken into account, including the type of insulation material, voltage level, and environment. An important distinction lies in the design of oil transformers and cast resin transformers. Both variants have their advantages and disadvantages and should be carefully selected based on the specific requirements.
Medium voltage distribution systems (MV systems) play a crucial role in power supply and require a high level of expertise and experience in their planning. These systems are used for distributing electrical energy in voltage ranges between 1 kV and 36 kV and find applications in various fields such as industry and power generation.
When planning a medium voltage system, several aspects need to be considered, including selecting the appropriate construction type, sizing the system, and determining the protective measures.
An important distinction in the planning of medium voltage switchgear systems relates to the construction type. There are two common variants: air-insulated switchgear and gas-insulated switchgear.
Air-insulated switchgear is the older of the two construction types and has been used in power engineering for decades. In these systems, the switchgear panels are insulated by air. The panels are typically designed as open lattice structures with several meters of spacing between them. Air-insulated switchgear has the advantage of being relatively cost-effective and highly reliable. However, they require a significant amount of space and are susceptible to environmental factors such as moisture and pollution.
A modern alternative to air-insulated switchgear is gas-insulated switchgear. These systems utilize specialized insulating gases instead of air, providing higher insulation performance. The switchgear panels are more compact and have reduced spacing, resulting in space savings. Gas-insulated switchgear systems are also more resistant to environmental influences and require less maintenance. However, they are more expensive to acquire and require special measures for handling the insulating gas.
When planning medium voltage systems, the selection of appropriate protective measures must also be taken into account. These measures may include surge protection and fault current protection to safeguard against voltage spikes and power outages.
The equipment rooms need to be ventilated or air-conditioned.
In summary, there are different construction types of medium voltage systems that can be used depending on the requirements and environment. Careful planning and selection of the construction type and protective measures are essential to ensure a reliable and safe power supply.
The planning of low voltage systems is an important step for installing a safe and reliable power supply in industrial plants and buildings. Low voltage systems are used for distributing electrical energy in voltage ranges up to 1000 volts.
The planning of a low voltage system involves various steps, such as selecting the appropriate construction type, sizing the system, and determining the protective measures. Different construction types of low voltage systems play an important role and can vary depending on the requirements and environment.
Another option is to use low voltage distribution panels. These panels consist of busbars stored in a switchboard and provide power supply to multiple consumers. Switchgear systems can be expanded or supplemented as needed, offering high flexibility in adapting the power supply.
When planning low voltage systems, suitable protective measures must also be considered. These may include residual current devices and surge protection to protect against power outages or short circuits.
High voltage switchgear systems transmit electrical energy at the high voltage level. Various factors need to be considered when planning high voltage switchgear systems, such as the required power range, voltage level, number of switchgear panels, and the environment.
An important distinction in the planning of high voltage switchgear systems relates to the construction of the switchgear. There are two common variants: air-insulated switchgear and gas-insulated switchgear.
Air-insulated switchgear is the older of the two construction types and has been used in power engineering for decades. In these switchgear systems, the switchgear panels are isolated using air. The panels are typically designed as open lattice structures with several meters of spacing between them. Air-insulated switchgear has the advantage of being relatively inexpensive and having high reliability. However, they require a significant amount of space and are susceptible to environmental factors such as moisture and pollution.
A modern alternative to air-insulated switchgear is gas-insulated switchgear. These switchgear systems use specialized insulating gases like sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) instead of air, providing higher insulation performance. The switchgear panels are more compact and have smaller spacing, saving space. Gas-insulated switchgear is also more resistant to environmental factors and requires less maintenance. However, they are more expensive to acquire and require special measures for handling the insulating gas.
When planning high voltage switchgear systems, the requirements for the voltage level and the required switching capacity must also be considered. There are different high voltage ranges, such as 110 kV, 220 kV, or 380 kV. The switchgear systems need to be dimensioned accordingly to ensure the required power capacity.
In summary, planning high voltage switchgear systems involves considering various factors, such as the construction type of the switchgear, voltage level, number of switchgear panels, and the environment. An important distinction lies in the construction types of air-insulated switchgear and gas-insulated switchgear. Both variants have their advantages and disadvantages and should be carefully selected based on the requirements.
Lighting describes the illumination of elements for visibility by the human eye, and it can be categorized as natural or artificial lighting.
Natural lighting is present without the application of artificial energy and is therefore cost-neutral and does not have any environmental impact.
Natural lighting cannot be controlled, only modified. Artificial lighting is generated through energy conversion and is derived from artificially produced forms of energy. As a result, artificial lighting involves effort and costs, but it can be controlled and regulated.
Therefore, artificial lighting is used wherever natural lighting is insufficient or unavailable. Artificial lighting can have a significant impact on well-being and safety in daily life. The light color in the white range is also measured as color temperature in Kelvin, ranging from red to white and into bright blue. This value represents the comparison of the light color to a thermal radiator, hence the reference to temperature.
In an era of conscious resource management, energy can be saved through lighting control techniques such as dimming natural lighting or shading it. This can be achieved through building system technology and the necessary light intensity sensors. Presence detection for task lighting can also provide significant advantages in energy consumption.
In building technology, lighting addresses the following aspects:
Telecommunication and intercom systems are used for communication within and outside of buildings. Since its inception in 1860 (researched by Philipp Reis), a lot has happened, and the original name “telephone,” a portmanteau of the Ancient Greek words for “far” and “voice,” doesn’t quite fit the modern data network, where all information, including voice, is transmitted in binary data packets.
Today, an intercom system typically refers to a self-contained, internally functioning electronic system within a building or property that allows communication with another person at a distance. These systems are frequently used at external doors and gates, in areas with security risks, and as central information points for safety, economic, and convenience reasons.
Telecommunication systems encompass access to the global communication network and distribution to multiple voice devices. The current standard is IP telephony, which offers a wide range of functions, including teleconferencing, video transmission, and computer-initiated calls. The shared infrastructure with information technology (IT) allows for greater flexibility compared to previous analog and ISDN systems.
Building regulations and requirements specify the objects in which safety systems and equipment, such as fire alarm systems, must be installed.
Therefore, many buildings and industrially utilized facilities, including garages, retail spaces, assembly areas, accommodation facilities, high-rise buildings, or hospitals, have technical systems and equipment installed to fulfill important tasks even during power supply disruptions or in case of fire.
The following are considered as safety systems and equipment:
If these systems are designed to rescue humans and animals and assist in effective firefighting efforts, they are referred to as “safety systems and equipment.”
Statistical evidence shows that the duration of power outages in Germany is steadily decreasing. While it was over 20 minutes in 2006, the average power loss in Germany in 2019 was only 12.2 minutes.
However, even brief interruptions in the power supply can be sufficient to cause significant damage and hazards in industrial plants, hospitals, data centers, and public buildings. UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and backup power systems protect against such risks.
Backup power systems typically consist of a combustion engine and a generator. They ensure the supply of electricity in case of emergencies, even for extended periods, and are legally required in certain areas. The backup power system with grid monitoring functions as a fully automatic substitute power source during a power outage. However, a backup power system requires several seconds to start the engine and take over the power supply.
This time interval can be covered by a UPS system (uninterruptible voltage supply) since it can immediately take over the power supply depending on its configuration. The use of UPS systems is limited in time as they rely on battery storage and, in larger systems, flywheels for energy supply.
There are different types of UPS systems, including online UPS systems that provide uninterrupted power supply continuously, and offline UPS systems that require only a few milliseconds to switch to backup power.
Automation is increasingly gaining ground in industry as well as in the private sector. A process that runs in a controlled manner due to influences is taken over by an automatic machine instead of a human being. The automatic machine follows a predefined program sequence that records and readjusts the references from measurement and control technology.
As the word automation, Automatos- ancient Greek for self-moving, says, once this equipment has been set up, the running of a process is possible without further human intervention.
Automation technology is an electro-technical data processing that concerns a sub-echelon of plant engineering, electrical engineering and engineering sciences in mechanical engineering and thus became a hub of today’s life, without which life as we know it would no longer be possible.
Controls are a central element of automation technology.
The term control technology or industrial control technology is representative for devices that control, regulate, monitor, collect data, communicate and diagnose.
In automation technology, “control” is understood to mean the influencing of a material or energy flow by a control loop in which several signals are processed. The result in turn influences the control loop, and the input variable influences the controlled output variable.
The term control technology is used in an adapted way in different fields of application. The term control technology is used at least as a collective term for the following three areas:
In the context of power generation plants, this means collecting data streams in the field and preparing them in the control technology.
Today, the acquisition and output of process signals via sensors and actuators can take place in many ways: centrally or decentrally, via 4…20mA / HART, or bus systems. A wide range of options are available to safely process the large number of different I/O process signals.
In central control technology, decentralized peripheral devices such as remote I/O stations with their I/O modules, transmitters, drives, valves or operator terminals communicate with the automation systems via a bus system at the field level. A bus system covers all the requirements of the process industry and has proven itself as a robust and reliable communication medium for the field.
The automation stations communicate with the redundant server stations via industrial Ethernet. The operation is carried out via the operator stations. Here, the use of decentralized black boxes is avoided as far as possible. Engineering stations allow access to the programming of the control circuit and thus optimization during the running process.
In decentralized systems, the control and regulation technology is usually implemented in individual controllers in the various sections of a power generation plant. Thus, a large number of these black boxes often have to be integrated into a higher-level control system. Here, communication modules are integrated into the black boxes, which then communicate with the higher-level control system via a bus coupling.
Bus systems (Binary Unit System) refer to an information network consisting of at least three defined components.
These components, also called subscribers, are connected with at least 2 conductive connections. In some bus systems, a defined structure must be observed and in some cases an end resistor must be provided at the end of the string.
In contrast to the IP protocol, the bus is “slower” – not as much data can be transmitted in the same time, but it is less susceptible to interference from electromagnetic influences, and its overall structure is less expensive, since all participants share a transmission path, and its operation and function is simpler.
Bus systems are often used in control technology. In buildings, this variant saves material and costs, and also allows the functions to be designed very flexibly in retrospect.
In the automotive sector, the CAN bus saves weight and thus conserves resources while increasing comfort.
Electricity storage is an important component for future and sustainable energy supply. They make it possible to store surplus energy from renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power and call it up when needed. When planning electricity storage systems, various factors must be taken into account, such as the required capacity, the depth of discharge, the charging and discharging rate, and the service life of the storage system.
An important differentiator in the design of electricity storage systems is the design of the storage system. Here, there are different variants such as battery storage, liquid air storage and pumped storage plants.
Battery storage is the most common type of electricity storage. They consist of lithium-ion batteries or other battery technologies and have the advantage of flexible use and high efficiency. Battery storage systems can be designed in various sizes and capacities and are suitable for stationary applications as well as for use in electric vehicles.
Liquid air storage systems are an alternative to battery storage systems and use air as the storage medium. This uses excess energy to compress air in a compressor, which is then stored in a tank. When needed, the air is expanded again to generate energy. Liquid air storage has the advantage of having a higher storage capacity than battery storage and can be less expensive.nen. However, they are also more complex to install and require special devices to store and recover the energy.
Pumped storage plants are another option for storing energy. In this process, excess energy is used to pump water to a higher reservoir. When needed, the water is drained again and passed through turbines to generate electricity. Pumped storage plants have the advantage that they have a high storage capacity and can respond quickly to fluctuating energy demands. However, they also require a suitable topographic location and may have negative environmental impacts on flora and fauna.
When planning electricity storage systems, the requirements of the application must also be taken into account. For example, battery storage is better suited for smaller capacities and rapid discharges, while liquid air storage and pumped storage may be better suited for larger capacities and slower discharges.
In summary, there are several factors to consider when planning electricity storage, such as the capacity required, the depth of discharge, the rate of charge and discharge, and the lifetime of the storage device.
Transformers play a crucial role in the transmission of electrical energy at different voltage levels. Various factors need to be considered when planning transformers, such as the required power range, voltage level, and environment.
An important distinction in transformer planning relates to the type of insulation material used. There are two common variants: oil transformers and cast resin transformers.
Oil transformers have been used in the field of power engineering for decades. They utilize special oils as insulation material, which also serve as cooling agents. Factors such as the required oil volume, oil quality, and necessary safety measures must be taken into account when planning oil transformers. The installation of oil transformers requires specific measures to protect the environment and human health, as oil leakage can have negative consequences.
A modern alternative to oil transformers is cast resin transformers. They use special cast resins as insulation material, which exhibit similar insulation properties as oil transformers but are more environmentally friendly. Cast resin transformers have higher thermal stability and can operate at higher temperatures, thereby extending their lifespan. The installation of cast resin transformers is simpler and requires less space compared to oil transformers.
When planning transformers, the requirements for voltage levels must also be considered. There are different voltage levels, such as high-voltage transformers, medium-voltage transformers, and low-voltage transformers.
In summary, when planning transformers, various factors need to be taken into account, including the type of insulation material, voltage level, and environment. An important distinction lies in the design of oil transformers and cast resin transformers. Both variants have their advantages and disadvantages and should be carefully selected based on the specific requirements.
Medium voltage distribution systems (MV systems) play a crucial role in power supply and require a high level of expertise and experience in their planning. These systems are used for distributing electrical energy in voltage ranges between 1 kV and 36 kV and find applications in various fields such as industry and power generation.
When planning a medium voltage system, several aspects need to be considered, including selecting the appropriate construction type, sizing the system, and determining the protective measures.
An important distinction in the planning of medium voltage switchgear systems relates to the construction type. There are two common variants: air-insulated switchgear and gas-insulated switchgear.
Air-insulated switchgear is the older of the two construction types and has been used in power engineering for decades. In these systems, the switchgear panels are insulated by air. The panels are typically designed as open lattice structures with several meters of spacing between them. Air-insulated switchgear has the advantage of being relatively cost-effective and highly reliable. However, they require a significant amount of space and are susceptible to environmental factors such as moisture and pollution.
A modern alternative to air-insulated switchgear is gas-insulated switchgear. These systems utilize specialized insulating gases instead of air, providing higher insulation performance. The switchgear panels are more compact and have reduced spacing, resulting in space savings. Gas-insulated switchgear systems are also more resistant to environmental influences and require less maintenance. However, they are more expensive to acquire and require special measures for handling the insulating gas.
When planning medium voltage systems, the selection of appropriate protective measures must also be taken into account. These measures may include surge protection and fault current protection to safeguard against voltage spikes and power outages.
The equipment rooms need to be ventilated or air-conditioned.
In summary, there are different construction types of medium voltage systems that can be used depending on the requirements and environment. Careful planning and selection of the construction type and protective measures are essential to ensure a reliable and safe power supply.
The planning of low voltage systems is an important step for installing a safe and reliable power supply in industrial plants and buildings. Low voltage systems are used for distributing electrical energy in voltage ranges up to 1000 volts.
The planning of a low voltage system involves various steps, such as selecting the appropriate construction type, sizing the system, and determining the protective measures. Different construction types of low voltage systems play an important role and can vary depending on the requirements and environment.
Another option is to use low voltage distribution panels. These panels consist of busbars stored in a switchboard and provide power supply to multiple consumers. Switchgear systems can be expanded or supplemented as needed, offering high flexibility in adapting the power supply.
When planning low voltage systems, suitable protective measures must also be considered. These may include residual current devices and surge protection to protect against power outages or short circuits.
High voltage switchgear systems transmit electrical energy at the high voltage level. Various factors need to be considered when planning high voltage switchgear systems, such as the required power range, voltage level, number of switchgear panels, and the environment.
An important distinction in the planning of high voltage switchgear systems relates to the construction of the switchgear. There are two common variants: air-insulated switchgear and gas-insulated switchgear.
Air-insulated switchgear is the older of the two construction types and has been used in power engineering for decades. In these switchgear systems, the switchgear panels are isolated using air. The panels are typically designed as open lattice structures with several meters of spacing between them. Air-insulated switchgear has the advantage of being relatively inexpensive and having high reliability. However, they require a significant amount of space and are susceptible to environmental factors such as moisture and pollution.
A modern alternative to air-insulated switchgear is gas-insulated switchgear. These switchgear systems use specialized insulating gases like sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) instead of air, providing higher insulation performance. The switchgear panels are more compact and have smaller spacing, saving space. Gas-insulated switchgear is also more resistant to environmental factors and requires less maintenance. However, they are more expensive to acquire and require special measures for handling the insulating gas.
When planning high voltage switchgear systems, the requirements for the voltage level and the required switching capacity must also be considered. There are different high voltage ranges, such as 110 kV, 220 kV, or 380 kV. The switchgear systems need to be dimensioned accordingly to ensure the required power capacity.
In summary, planning high voltage switchgear systems involves considering various factors, such as the construction type of the switchgear, voltage level, number of switchgear panels, and the environment. An important distinction lies in the construction types of air-insulated switchgear and gas-insulated switchgear. Both variants have their advantages and disadvantages and should be carefully selected based on the requirements.
Lighting describes the illumination of elements for visibility by the human eye, and it can be categorized as natural or artificial lighting.
Natural lighting is present without the application of artificial energy and is therefore cost-neutral and does not have any environmental impact.
Natural lighting cannot be controlled, only modified. Artificial lighting is generated through energy conversion and is derived from artificially produced forms of energy. As a result, artificial lighting involves effort and costs, but it can be controlled and regulated.
Therefore, artificial lighting is used wherever natural lighting is insufficient or unavailable. Artificial lighting can have a significant impact on well-being and safety in daily life. The light color in the white range is also measured as color temperature in Kelvin, ranging from red to white and into bright blue. This value represents the comparison of the light color to a thermal radiator, hence the reference to temperature.
In an era of conscious resource management, energy can be saved through lighting control techniques such as dimming natural lighting or shading it. This can be achieved through building system technology and the necessary light intensity sensors. Presence detection for task lighting can also provide significant advantages in energy consumption.
In building technology, lighting addresses the following aspects:
Telecommunication and intercom systems are used for communication within and outside of buildings. Since its inception in 1860 (researched by Philipp Reis), a lot has happened, and the original name “telephone,” a portmanteau of the Ancient Greek words for “far” and “voice,” doesn’t quite fit the modern data network, where all information, including voice, is transmitted in binary data packets.
Today, an intercom system typically refers to a self-contained, internally functioning electronic system within a building or property that allows communication with another person at a distance. These systems are frequently used at external doors and gates, in areas with security risks, and as central information points for safety, economic, and convenience reasons.
Telecommunication systems encompass access to the global communication network and distribution to multiple voice devices. The current standard is IP telephony, which offers a wide range of functions, including teleconferencing, video transmission, and computer-initiated calls. The shared infrastructure with information technology (IT) allows for greater flexibility compared to previous analog and ISDN systems.
Building regulations and requirements specify the objects in which safety systems and equipment, such as fire alarm systems, must be installed.
Therefore, many buildings and industrially utilized facilities, including garages, retail spaces, assembly areas, accommodation facilities, high-rise buildings, or hospitals, have technical systems and equipment installed to fulfill important tasks even during power supply disruptions or in case of fire.
The following are considered as safety systems and equipment:
If these systems are designed to rescue humans and animals and assist in effective firefighting efforts, they are referred to as “safety systems and equipment.”
Statistical evidence shows that the duration of power outages in Germany is steadily decreasing. While it was over 20 minutes in 2006, the average power loss in Germany in 2019 was only 12.2 minutes.
However, even brief interruptions in the power supply can be sufficient to cause significant damage and hazards in industrial plants, hospitals, data centers, and public buildings. UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) and backup power systems protect against such risks.
Backup power systems typically consist of a combustion engine and a generator. They ensure the supply of electricity in case of emergencies, even for extended periods, and are legally required in certain areas. The backup power system with grid monitoring functions as a fully automatic substitute power source during a power outage. However, a backup power system requires several seconds to start the engine and take over the power supply.
This time interval can be covered by a UPS system (uninterruptible voltage supply) since it can immediately take over the power supply depending on its configuration. The use of UPS systems is limited in time as they rely on battery storage and, in larger systems, flywheels for energy supply.
There are different types of UPS systems, including online UPS systems that provide uninterrupted power supply continuously, and offline UPS systems that require only a few milliseconds to switch to backup power.
Automation is increasingly gaining ground in industry as well as in the private sector. A process that runs in a controlled manner due to influences is taken over by an automatic machine instead of a human being. The automatic machine follows a predefined program sequence that records and readjusts the references from measurement and control technology.
As the word automation, Automatos- ancient Greek for self-moving, says, once this equipment has been set up, the running of a process is possible without further human intervention.
Automation technology is an electro-technical data processing that concerns a sub-echelon of plant engineering, electrical engineering and engineering sciences in mechanical engineering and thus became a hub of today’s life, without which life as we know it would no longer be possible.
Controls are a central element of automation technology.
The term control technology or industrial control technology is representative for devices that control, regulate, monitor, collect data, communicate and diagnose.
In automation technology, “control” is understood to mean the influencing of a material or energy flow by a control loop in which several signals are processed. The result in turn influences the control loop, and the input variable influences the controlled output variable.
The term control technology is used in an adapted way in different fields of application. The term control technology is used at least as a collective term for the following three areas:
In the context of power generation plants, this means collecting data streams in the field and preparing them in the control technology.
Today, the acquisition and output of process signals via sensors and actuators can take place in many ways: centrally or decentrally, via 4…20mA / HART, or bus systems. A wide range of options are available to safely process the large number of different I/O process signals.
In central control technology, decentralized peripheral devices such as remote I/O stations with their I/O modules, transmitters, drives, valves or operator terminals communicate with the automation systems via a bus system at the field level. A bus system covers all the requirements of the process industry and has proven itself as a robust and reliable communication medium for the field.
The automation stations communicate with the redundant server stations via industrial Ethernet. The operation is carried out via the operator stations. Here, the use of decentralized black boxes is avoided as far as possible. Engineering stations allow access to the programming of the control circuit and thus optimization during the running process.
In decentralized systems, the control and regulation technology is usually implemented in individual controllers in the various sections of a power generation plant. Thus, a large number of these black boxes often have to be integrated into a higher-level control system. Here, communication modules are integrated into the black boxes, which then communicate with the higher-level control system via a bus coupling.
Bus systems (Binary Unit System) refer to an information network consisting of at least three defined components.
These components, also called subscribers, are connected with at least 2 conductive connections. In some bus systems, a defined structure must be observed and in some cases an end resistor must be provided at the end of the string.
In contrast to the IP protocol, the bus is “slower” – not as much data can be transmitted in the same time, but it is less susceptible to interference from electromagnetic influences, and its overall structure is less expensive, since all participants share a transmission path, and its operation and function is simpler.
Bus systems are often used in control technology. In buildings, this variant saves material and costs, and also allows the functions to be designed very flexibly in retrospect.
In the automotive sector, the CAN bus saves weight and thus conserves resources while increasing comfort.
Electricity storage is an important component for future and sustainable energy supply. They make it possible to store surplus energy from renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power and call it up when needed. When planning electricity storage systems, various factors must be taken into account, such as the required capacity, the depth of discharge, the charging and discharging rate, and the service life of the storage system.
An important differentiator in the design of electricity storage systems is the design of the storage system. Here, there are different variants such as battery storage, liquid air storage and pumped storage plants.
Battery storage is the most common type of electricity storage. They consist of lithium-ion batteries or other battery technologies and have the advantage of flexible use and high efficiency. Battery storage systems can be designed in various sizes and capacities and are suitable for stationary applications as well as for use in electric vehicles.
Liquid air storage systems are an alternative to battery storage systems and use air as the storage medium. This uses excess energy to compress air in a compressor, which is then stored in a tank. When needed, the air is expanded again to generate energy. Liquid air storage has the advantage of having a higher storage capacity than battery storage and can be less expensive.nen. However, they are also more complex to install and require special devices to store and recover the energy.
Pumped storage plants are another option for storing energy. In this process, excess energy is used to pump water to a higher reservoir. When needed, the water is drained again and passed through turbines to generate electricity. Pumped storage plants have the advantage that they have a high storage capacity and can respond quickly to fluctuating energy demands. However, they also require a suitable topographic location and may have negative environmental impacts on flora and fauna.
When planning electricity storage systems, the requirements of the application must also be taken into account. For example, battery storage is better suited for smaller capacities and rapid discharges, while liquid air storage and pumped storage may be better suited for larger capacities and slower discharges.
In summary, there are several factors to consider when planning electricity storage, such as the capacity required, the depth of discharge, the rate of charge and discharge, and the lifetime of the storage device.
Pelleting plants transform raw biomass into fuels that can replace the use of oil and gas in households and energy generation.
With the implementation of the EU standard 14961-2, there is now a uniform European standard for wood pellets. The EU standard 14961-2 for wood pellets categorizes pellets into three quality classes: Classes A1 and A2 for end consumers and industrial pellets of class B.
During the refinement process to produce these fuels, water is extracted from the raw material, increasing its heating value. This increase in heating value is essential for the utilization of raw biomass in fully automated small-scale combustion systems (e.g., pellet heaters), which achieve the convenience of operation similar to oil or gas heating systems. The use of industrial pellets in large power plants, including co-firing with fossil fuels, is becoming increasingly important in countries that have signed the Kyoto Protocol.
Pelleting plants are fully automated production facilities where the raw material undergoes consolidation through multiple process stages. This improves the transport properties of biomass and enables the economically and ecologically sound use of fuels.
Briquetting plants transform raw biomass into fuels that can replace the use of fossil fuels such as oil, gas, or coal.
Briquetting plants are fully automated production facilities where, after drying, the raw material undergoes consolidation through mechanical or hydraulic briquette presses. The shape and size of the briquettes can vary depending on the plant manufacturer. After the briquetting process, a cooling section stabilizes the hardness through slow cooling.
The pellets made from natural wood chips can be used in small-scale private combustion systems (fireplaces) as well as in larger plants through co-firing with fossil fuels.
Since the implementation of stricter emission requirements, it has become apparent that low-emission energy use of wood assortments is not solely a matter of combustion and exhaust gas cleaning, but also of appropriate fuel preparation. Therefore, it can be economically beneficial to invest more in crushing, screening, and sorting technology to reduce costs for the subsequent process.
To meet these aspects, there is a diverse range of technology for storage, transport, and processing.
The condition of the raw material upon delivery, its size, contamination from minerals (stones, soil), or foreign substances like iron determines the material preparation.
From the sawmill sector, we are familiar with the plant technology that debarks the raw material, measures and cuts the wood, and removes edge and end pieces.
Depending on the requirements, there are mobile or stationary units (chippers, mills) that shred the wood material into the required particle size. Subsequent screening machines, metal and non-metal separators, or heavy material separators remove impurities.
The wood material can be transported for storage, for example, using wheel loaders or automated conveyors, to systems such as push-floor facilities with discharge or bunker systems with crane feeding.
Pelleting plants transform raw biomass into fuels that can replace the use of oil and gas in households and energy generation.
With the implementation of the EU standard 14961-2, there is now a uniform European standard for wood pellets. The EU standard 14961-2 for wood pellets categorizes pellets into three quality classes: Classes A1 and A2 for end consumers and industrial pellets of class B.
During the refinement process to produce these fuels, water is extracted from the raw material, increasing its heating value. This increase in heating value is essential for the utilization of raw biomass in fully automated small-scale combustion systems (e.g., pellet heaters), which achieve the convenience of operation similar to oil or gas heating systems. The use of industrial pellets in large power plants, including co-firing with fossil fuels, is becoming increasingly important in countries that have signed the Kyoto Protocol.
Pelleting plants are fully automated production facilities where the raw material undergoes consolidation through multiple process stages. This improves the transport properties of biomass and enables the economically and ecologically sound use of fuels.
Briquetting plants transform raw biomass into fuels that can replace the use of fossil fuels such as oil, gas, or coal.
Briquetting plants are fully automated production facilities where, after drying, the raw material undergoes consolidation through mechanical or hydraulic briquette presses. The shape and size of the briquettes can vary depending on the plant manufacturer. After the briquetting process, a cooling section stabilizes the hardness through slow cooling.
The pellets made from natural wood chips can be used in small-scale private combustion systems (fireplaces) as well as in larger plants through co-firing with fossil fuels.
Since the implementation of stricter emission requirements, it has become apparent that low-emission energy use of wood assortments is not solely a matter of combustion and exhaust gas cleaning, but also of appropriate fuel preparation. Therefore, it can be economically beneficial to invest more in crushing, screening, and sorting technology to reduce costs for the subsequent process.
To meet these aspects, there is a diverse range of technology for storage, transport, and processing.
The condition of the raw material upon delivery, its size, contamination from minerals (stones, soil), or foreign substances like iron determines the material preparation.
From the sawmill sector, we are familiar with the plant technology that debarks the raw material, measures and cuts the wood, and removes edge and end pieces.
Depending on the requirements, there are mobile or stationary units (chippers, mills) that shred the wood material into the required particle size. Subsequent screening machines, metal and non-metal separators, or heavy material separators remove impurities.
The wood material can be transported for storage, for example, using wheel loaders or automated conveyors, to systems such as push-floor facilities with discharge or bunker systems with crane feeding.
Our experts provide advice on all energy efficiency matters, particularly aimed at reducing energy costs. We offer various services, such as energy consultations, energy audits and the development of energy concepts. Specific requirements and needs of the client are taken into account.
As there are different types of energy consultants specializing in different areas, it is important to rely on the right professional. A key distinction concerns the type of buildings they work with. Thus, there are energy consultants for residential buildings, non-residential buildings, and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
Building energy consultants specialize in improving the energy efficiency of residential buildings. They assist homeowners in reducing energy costs by recommending a range of measures, such as improving insulation, replacing windows and doors, or installing energy-efficient heating systems. Building energy consultants can also provide support in applying for funding and selecting suitable contractors.
Non-residential building energy consultants specialize in the energy efficiency of commercial and public buildings. They help businesses and public institutions reduce their energy costs by recommending measures such as optimizing heating and ventilation systems, installing energy-efficient lighting systems, or utilizing renewable energy sources. Non-residential building energy consultants can also provide support in applying for funding and selecting suitable contractors.
Energy consultants for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) specialize in improving the energy efficiency of small and medium-sized businesses. They assist companies in reducing energy costs by recommending measures such as optimizing heating and ventilation systems, installing energy-efficient lighting systems, or utilizing renewable energy sources. Energy consultants for SMEs can also provide support in applying for funding and selecting suitable contractors.
In any case, our services are aimed at promoting efficient energy use and reducing energy costs. Through careful planning and implementation of energy-saving measures, your company or you as individuals can not only reduce energy costs but also contribute to climate protection. Energy consultants play a crucial role by utilizing their expertise and experience to find customized solutions for each client.
Our experts provide advice on all energy efficiency matters, particularly aimed at reducing energy costs. We offer various services, such as energy consultations, energy audits and the development of energy concepts. Specific requirements and needs of the client are taken into account.
As there are different types of energy consultants specializing in different areas, it is important to rely on the right professional. A key distinction concerns the type of buildings they work with. Thus, there are energy consultants for residential buildings, non-residential buildings, and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
Building energy consultants specialize in improving the energy efficiency of residential buildings. They assist homeowners in reducing energy costs by recommending a range of measures, such as improving insulation, replacing windows and doors, or installing energy-efficient heating systems. Building energy consultants can also provide support in applying for funding and selecting suitable contractors.
Non-residential building energy consultants specialize in the energy efficiency of commercial and public buildings. They help businesses and public institutions reduce their energy costs by recommending measures such as optimizing heating and ventilation systems, installing energy-efficient lighting systems, or utilizing renewable energy sources. Non-residential building energy consultants can also provide support in applying for funding and selecting suitable contractors.
Energy consultants for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) specialize in improving the energy efficiency of small and medium-sized businesses. They assist companies in reducing energy costs by recommending measures such as optimizing heating and ventilation systems, installing energy-efficient lighting systems, or utilizing renewable energy sources. Energy consultants for SMEs can also provide support in applying for funding and selecting suitable contractors.
In any case, our services are aimed at promoting efficient energy use and reducing energy costs. Through careful planning and implementation of energy-saving measures, your company or you as individuals can not only reduce energy costs but also contribute to climate protection. Energy consultants play a crucial role by utilizing their expertise and experience to find customized solutions for each client.
Piping engineering is an important part of the engineering discipline that deals with the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of pipelines. Piping is used in a variety of applications, including fluid and steam handling, wastewater disposal, potable water supply, and process industries.
Pipeline engineering encompasses a variety of technical disciplines, including mechanics, thermodynamics, hydraulics, materials science, and control engineering. Piping design and construction requires a deep understanding of these disciplines as well as extensive knowledge of application requirements.
Piping engineering begins with the planning and design of the pipeline. Here, the requirements of the application, the pipeline route, the type of medium to be conveyed, the pressure and the temperature must be taken into account. The selection of piping materials is also an important factor, as materials must be selected based on the application and operating or design conditions.
Another important aspect of pipeline engineering is the installation of the pipeline. Many factors must be considered, such as the mounting options, the type of building, the installation height of the pipeline and the environment in which the pipeline will be installed. Installation of piping continues to require extensive knowledge of welding and jointing techniques and the use of sealants. Commissioning includes inspection and testing of the pipeline to ensure that it meets the set requirements and that all systems are functioning properly. Pipeline maintenance includes monitoring operations, servicing valves and seals, and repairing damage or failures.
Pipe structural analysis is an essential aspect of pipeline engineering and involves the calculation and analysis of the loads and deformations of pipelines under various operating conditions. The Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) is an EU directive that sets out the requirements for the design, manufacture and testing of pressure equipment and vessels. Compliance with the PED is mandatory for all manufacturers of pressure equipment and piping in the EU.
Pipe statics according to the PED includes the calculation and analysis of the loads and deformations of pipelines, taking into account the requirements of the PED. Here, the piping must be designed to meet the requirements of the PED and at the same time meet the requirements of the applic
The calculation of pipe statics includes the determination of the loads acting on the pipeline, such as the pressure, temperature, weight load and forces due to movement or vibration. Pipeline deformations are calculated to ensure that the pipeline meets the requirements of the application and the PED.
The calculation of the pipe statics is performed with the help of the program Pipe 2, which was specially developed for this task. The programs are based on the legal requirements as well as on the basic principles of mechanics and material science. The results of the calculations are presented in the form of tables, which use for further processing.
Compliance with the requirements of the PED or AD2000 is mandatory for all manufacturers of pressure equipment and piping in the EU. Compliance with these requirements ensures that piping and pressure vessels are safe and reliable and meet the requirements of the application.
Component sizing in piping design is another aspect of piping system construction and design. Careful component sizing is critical to ensuring the safety and reliability of piping systems and to optimizing costs.
Component sizing refers to calculating the dimensions of components such as pipes, fittings, valves and flanges to ensure that they meet the requirements of the application and the relevant standards. The dimensioning of piping components depends on various factors, such as pressure, temperature, flow rate and the type of transported medium.
Component dimensioning is usually performed using calculation programs based on the relevant standards and guidelines. The results of the calculations are reviewed and evaluated to ensure that they meet the requirements of the application.
The dimensioning of pipes depends on various factors, such as the operating pressure, the permissible pressure load of the material, the wall thickness and the diameter. The sizing of fittings and valves depends on factors such as the pressure drop, the flow rate and the type of medium being transported.
Component sizing also affects the cost of piping systems. Careful sizing can help optimize costs by ensuring that components are used efficiently and cost-effectively. However, incorrect sizing can result in higher costs by leading to unnecessary material consumption or performance degradation.
Piping engineering is an important part of the engineering discipline that deals with the design, installation, operation, and maintenance of pipelines. Piping is used in a variety of applications, including fluid and steam handling, wastewater disposal, potable water supply, and process industries.
Pipeline engineering encompasses a variety of technical disciplines, including mechanics, thermodynamics, hydraulics, materials science, and control engineering. Piping design and construction requires a deep understanding of these disciplines as well as extensive knowledge of application requirements.
Piping engineering begins with the planning and design of the pipeline. Here, the requirements of the application, the pipeline route, the type of medium to be conveyed, the pressure and the temperature must be taken into account. The selection of piping materials is also an important factor, as materials must be selected based on the application and operating or design conditions.
Another important aspect of pipeline engineering is the installation of the pipeline. Many factors must be considered, such as the mounting options, the type of building, the installation height of the pipeline and the environment in which the pipeline will be installed. Installation of piping continues to require extensive knowledge of welding and jointing techniques and the use of sealants. Commissioning includes inspection and testing of the pipeline to ensure that it meets the set requirements and that all systems are functioning properly. Pipeline maintenance includes monitoring operations, servicing valves and seals, and repairing damage or failures.
Pipe structural analysis is an essential aspect of pipeline engineering and involves the calculation and analysis of the loads and deformations of pipelines under various operating conditions. The Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) is an EU directive that sets out the requirements for the design, manufacture and testing of pressure equipment and vessels. Compliance with the PED is mandatory for all manufacturers of pressure equipment and piping in the EU.
Pipe statics according to the PED includes the calculation and analysis of the loads and deformations of pipelines, taking into account the requirements of the PED. Here, the piping must be designed to meet the requirements of the PED and at the same time meet the requirements of the applic
The calculation of pipe statics includes the determination of the loads acting on the pipeline, such as the pressure, temperature, weight load and forces due to movement or vibration. Pipeline deformations are calculated to ensure that the pipeline meets the requirements of the application and the PED.
The calculation of the pipe statics is performed with the help of the program Pipe 2, which was specially developed for this task. The programs are based on the legal requirements as well as on the basic principles of mechanics and material science. The results of the calculations are presented in the form of tables, which use for further processing.
Compliance with the requirements of the PED or AD2000 is mandatory for all manufacturers of pressure equipment and piping in the EU. Compliance with these requirements ensures that piping and pressure vessels are safe and reliable and meet the requirements of the application.
Component sizing in piping design is another aspect of piping system construction and design. Careful component sizing is critical to ensuring the safety and reliability of piping systems and to optimizing costs.
Component sizing refers to calculating the dimensions of components such as pipes, fittings, valves and flanges to ensure that they meet the requirements of the application and the relevant standards. The dimensioning of piping components depends on various factors, such as pressure, temperature, flow rate and the type of transported medium.
Component dimensioning is usually performed using calculation programs based on the relevant standards and guidelines. The results of the calculations are reviewed and evaluated to ensure that they meet the requirements of the application.
The dimensioning of pipes depends on various factors, such as the operating pressure, the permissible pressure load of the material, the wall thickness and the diameter. The sizing of fittings and valves depends on factors such as the pressure drop, the flow rate and the type of medium being transported.
Component sizing also affects the cost of piping systems. Careful sizing can help optimize costs by ensuring that components are used efficiently and cost-effectively. However, incorrect sizing can result in higher costs by leading to unnecessary material consumption or performance degradation.
